Contemporary Middle East History using books The Modern Middle East Essay

Contemporary Middle East History using books The Modern Middle East (Gelvin) and Sources in History of the Modern Middle East (K - Essay Example At the end of the 19th century, in light of this increasing anti-Semitism in Europe, Zionist leaders encouraged massive immigration to Palestine through the purchase of these lands using the Jewish National Fund. Soon the Arabs who were the predominant owners of this land started feeling aggrieved. This land dispossession of the Arab land by the Jews soon erupted into sporadic violence between the two communities (Smith, 2006). During the First World War both the Arabs and the Jews fought on the side of the British against the Turks who were allied to the Germans. Their reasons were however very different. On the side of the Arabs the British encouraged them to revolt against the Turks with the promise that after the war the British would establish nation states for them including for the Palestine territory which by then had huge numbers of Jews (Schindler, 2008). Jews on the other hand were also encouraged to revolt with the promise that after the war the British would establish fo r them a Jewish state. This was done through the Balfour Declaration to the Zionist leaders. Following the end of the war however the British could not simultaneously satisfy the promises made to both the Jews and the Arabs in Palestine which had been placed under its mandate. Meanwhile violence between the Arabs and Jews increased as more Jews continued emigrating from Europe into these Arab lands especially after the Nazi ascendance to power in Germany on an anti-Semitic platform. After the Second World War and in light of the Holocaust, the state of Israeli was formed 1948 resulting in war with the Arabs which have continued sporadically since then with major ones being in 1948, 1952, 1956, 1967, 1973, 1982 and 2006. The major stumbling blocks to the Arab-Israeli peace include the continued construction of Jewish settlement housing schemes in what the Palestinians consider their own territory. This has resulted in the Palestinians claiming that that the Israelis deliberately want to ensure that if they ever get a state then it won’t be a viable one (Fawcett, 2005). Another stumbling block is the refusal of powerful forces within the Palestinians like Hamas to recognize the state of Israel. There is also the contention of the state of Jerusalem on where exactly it should be given that it is considered a Holly City by both the Arabs and Jews. (Fawcett, 2005). The First World War is considered a turning point in the affairs of the Middle East. During the war the British had given both the Jews and the Arabs in Palestine promises it could not fulfil. The British, in a bid to defeat the Turks had encouraged both Arab nationalism and Zionism to spur both the Arabs and the Jews in fighting the Turks (Sachar, 1976). Following the defeat of the Turks Arab states were curved from the former Ottoman Empire while some became British Mandates. One of these mandatory states was the Palestinian state which was occupied by both the Arabs and the Jews. Since the Brit ish could give the land to neither the Arabs nor the Jews conflicts continued between the two groups especially after the influx of Jews continued to grow leading to severe pressure on the land. The influx was mainly due to the Russian Revolution and later on in the 1930s to the violent anti-Semitism in Germany which

Overview of Celiac Disease and Gluten

Overview of Celiac Disease and Gluten WHATS IN YOUR WHEAT? BY AISHA ADIL Percolating deep into the abyss of gluten-related research studies, opinions and perspectives, and several news outlets, it is starting to seem that, despite the hype, gluten-free diets (GFD) may not necessarily be the answer to a healthy lifestyle. Although these diets are the only current nutritional treatment for gluten-sensitive patients, other treatment options are being speculated. But even outside of the scope of disease, the prominence of gluten-free diets in the general population is raising question marks about how hazardous gluten really is. It has only been about 10,000 years since wheat was introduced but it is only now that being gluten-free is apparently the path to a healthy life. Hence, questioning what is in your wheat invites the inquiry of gluten: what caused it to gain so much prominence and subsequently a downgrade in the past years? What else is involved besides gluten? It is surprising to realize that many gluten-sensitive individuals are subject to a combination of factors, rather than gluten alone, that give rise to their sensitivity. Many researchers are investigating other complex carbohydrates present in wheat with some even suggesting that these carbohydrates have a higher likelihood in causing intestinal distress than gluten. With several angles of research being conducted on the role of gluten in our lives, it is imperative that we evaluate the history of gluten over the years and our current knowledge to assess a question that is very simply-put but difficult to answer: is a gluten-free diet a healthy choice? The Underpinning of Civilizations and Celiac The discovery of seeds and domestication of crops cradled the development and flourishment of civilizations at the cost of celiac disease (CD), an illness triggered by the ingestion of gluten. Clinically, the existence of celiac disease dates back to 1888 but it was only a little less than a hundred years later in the 1950s that the consumption of wheat, barley, and rye were speculated as the cause of intestinal lesions. Gluten, the storage proteins that comprise much of our common sources of carbohydrates such as wheat, barley, and rye, was found to be at the center of inducing CD and later in time, non-celiac gluten sensitivity. While the latter disorder is a controversial matter in even being considered a medical condition, celiac disease patients show a hypersensitive reaction to gluten consumption. This autoimmune ailment, otherwise described as a condition that causes our bodys immune system to attack our own tissues, detracts individuals from proper nutrient absorption and sub jects them to abdominal pain, diarrhea, and swollen bellies. It can even reach the extent of destroying our intestinal villi, the brush-like surfaces of our small intestine. Recently, it has been found that CD arises when individuals, along with being exposed to gluten, have a genetic predisposition to CD, and, per Fasano and his colleagues nine years of research, a leaky gut; an unusually permeable intestinal membrane, that permits the entry of gliadins, undigested fragments of gluten. The immunology of Celiac Disease   Delving further into the pathophysiology of CD, the mechanisms underlying CD are more complicated than one might expect. CD patients harbor an inherited set of gene variants called histocompatibility leukocyte antigens (HLAs) that give rise to the hypersensitive reaction against gluten. 95% of celiac patients possess HLA-DQ2 and/or HLA-DQ8, proteins required for the primary establishment of CD. These proteins aid in developing an immune response in the face of microbial attacks. However, CD patients bodies secrete the tissue transglutaminase (TTG) that responds to and modifies ingested gluten proteins in a way that binds them with DQ2/8 proteins and initiates an immune response. Though this immune response should be protective, it unfortunately harms the intestinal cells and hinders the absorption of nutrients. We are not engineered to eat wheatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. gluten only came into the picture 10 000 years ago, with the advent of agriculture Alessio Fasano, University of Maryland School of Medicine The recent introduction of gluten perhaps explains why our body mounts an immune response against it it perceives gluten as a foreign invader such as a virus or a bacterium and activates the same defense as it does when an infection attacks our body. It therefore becomes tempting to propose that gluten should be eliminated from our diets completely but not so fast, says Fasano. Fasanos discovery of zonulin, a protein activated by gliadin in gluten and a capability of modifying the guts permeability, is seemingly a ray of hope. This protein is predictably what allows a leaky gut to occur, creating a loss of control as our intestine can no longer create a barrier against unwanted particles. However, zonulin is a controversial solution as clinical research and evidence on zonulin is scant. It is nonetheless suggested that zonulin modifies antigen traffic and may be involved in not only CD but in other, various immune diseases. Who knew gluten could cause controversy? Having gluten within the diet and experiencing gluten-sensitivity outside the context of celiac has also sparked controversies worldwide. This has been the case with Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS), another syndrome in the spectrum of gluten-induced disorders that results in both extraintestinal and gastrointestinal symptoms due to gluten-withdrawal. This syndrome is however not new as reports dating back to the 1970s and 1980s provide evidence of patients experiencing wheat or gluten withdrawal in the absence of CD. NCGS main controversy today lies within its unavailable etiologic background or evidence such as biomarkers or histological abnormalities to support its existence. Another issue is that NCGS patients also report symptoms similar to those found in Irritable Bowel Syndrome patients (IBS). This is an area where personal experience and anecdote really trumps the medical evidence thats emerged Dr. Jason Tye-Din, gastroenterologist at Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Australia. Although this condition is raising conflicts between personal beliefs and medical advice, further research proposes that NCGS patients may be intolerant to other components of wheat such as FODMAPS and fructans rather than just gluten. FODMAPS, a group of sugars that are either poorly absorbed by the small intestine or completely indigestible, can be found in foods high in fructose such as apples and mangoes, dairy products, and fructans such as onions and garlic. Several studies such as Peter Gibsons and Biesikeierski and colleagues, in 2011, suggested that gluten is the culprit after all. Both well-designed studies subjected IBS patients to a gluten restriction challenge followed by a reintroduction of gluten. The results suggested that IBS patients do have NCGS given that they experienced stomach ailments when treated with gluten. These studies were however, criticized for their small numbers of participants and limited statistical evidence. Further well-designed and more detail-o riented studies in 2013 revealed that NCGS patients did not experience symptoms from gluten but rather with a FODMAPs diet. Accordingly, it seems that a FODMAPs-free diet is more effective but also more complicated than a gluten-free diet. Studies from 2011 have also convinced millions of people that being gluten-free makes them feel better. Research on FODMAPs however, does not have enough data to provide a definitive answer either; most of it is unclear or preliminary. Many studies are currently underway and will require time before a conclusive answer is available. Going Gluten-Free Conversely, with an increasingly growing belief that gluten-free diets are healthier, there is an increased consumption and demand for gluten-free foods in the market. Food companies are using the common perceptions that gluten-free products are healthier to advertise their products as such and that too, at an elevated price. These products may even be nutrient-poor and miscellaneous about their sugar, salt, and saturated fat composition. Economic markets respond to meet the growing demand hence it is no surprise to Catherine Cross, a writer of the Canadian Medical Association Journal, that gluten-free stamps are appearing more frequently on both healthy and unhealthy products. This therefore leads us to question whether the gluten-free products we buy are actually healthy. Besides our deep percolation of the pathogenesis and underlying mechanisms of wheat components and their effects on gluten-induced disorders, answering this question involves additional enquiry into the markets ex pansion of gluten-free products. After investigating and comparing the nutritional quality of 3213 gluten-free and non-gluten free products across 10 food categories, Wu and his colleagues in 2015 deduced that gluten-free products have, on average, lower protein levels, and an overall poor quality due to a high composition of sugar, salt, and saturated fats. Cross delved further into this matter suggesting that conventional gluten-free flours such as potato, rice, tapioca, and sorghum contain more calories and carbohydrates, and are also unfortified, an absence of intentionally increased essential micronutrients. Put differently, there is a large body of evidence suggesting that being gluten-free is not always healthier given the substitution of fat and sugar to compensate for the absence of gluten. However, further insight into whether this gluten-free diet is a better option can be better understood from CD patients bound to this diet. Groups of researchers including Lee and colleagues, and Singh Whelan all present similar data and conclusions of the limited availability of gluten-free products in parts of the US and in London, UK as well as their increased price compared to standard counterparts. Furthermore, Nascimento and colleagues in 2014 percolated consumer perceptions and suggestions of celiac consumers in Brazils Santa Catarina, and found that along with low availability and high prices, individuals experienced poor palatability and social life restrictions leading to hindrances in adhering to the gluten-free diet, and overall dissatisfaction with employing the diet. Other studies, such as Hallert and colleagues also suggest higher levels of nutritional deficiencies, especially of fibre and B vitamins. Conclusively, these studies and observations provide a greater set of limitations than advantages in employing a gluten-free diet which raises the ultimate question: how do we stay healthy? Fasano suggests that it depends on how one wants to become gluten-free. If one employs a natural gluten-free diet without substitutes and consume only fresh fruits, vegetables, and meats, it may be beneficial and may alleviate their symptoms of gluten-sensitivity. But a gluten-free diet with gluten-free pasta or cakes may result in adverse effects. Alexandra Anca, a Toronto dietitian, also suggests that if one desires a healthy-eating lifestyle, it is better to get back to the basics. While celiac patients are bound to gluten-free diets but nonetheless are on their way to alternative treatments, those who seek healthy lifestyles should focus on whole and less-processed foods, says Melanie McGrice, an Australian dietician. Overall, employing a healthy lifestyle is complicated given the interplay of the food markets increasingly diverse production of gluten-free products and the less well-known facts and studies about CD and NCGS. Embarking on this journey nonetheless requires a careful consideration of how you want to become healthy will you go old-school with the fresh fruits and vegetables? Word Count: 1796

Cuban Economics Essay -- Essays Papers

Introduction Modern Cuba is a country born of struggle. The revolutionary movement that formed the modern day government has remained in power for more than forty years. Indeed, the Cuban government is perhaps one of the most stable governments in the region. This fact is made even more evident by the recent fall of democracy in Haiti. However, the past ten years has seen a marked change in Cuban economic policy. Ostracized from the international community and faced with an embargo imposed by the United States, Cuba has turned to various sources of economic reform in order to survive in a global market. Background (1959 – 1991) During the early period after the revolution, Cuba’s primary economic base was based upon one agricultural resource: sugar (Packenham, pg. 137). Without a diversified agricultural or industrial base, Cuba was forced to become dependent on the only superpower that shared its political ideology, the Soviet Union. Indeed, Cuban trade with the Soviet Union reached a level of 69 percent in 1978, a level equivalent to the amount of trade conducted with the United States prior to the revolution (Packenham, pg. 139). As Cuba entered the 1980’s, it was plagued with the same problems that had plagued it since its inception: dependence on one agricultural produce and on one major trading partner. In the estimate of Carmelo Mesa-Lago, most of the Cuban growth from 1960-1984 came as a result of the $40 billion in Soviet aid (â€Å"Cuban Economy†, pg. 187). Leading up to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Cuban economy was in a terrible condition. In 1986, the economic growth in planned prices was only 1.4 percent compared to a planned rate of 3 percent. Labor productivity fell 1.6 per... ...orida Press (1994). Packenham, Robert A., â€Å"Cuba and the USSR since 1959: What Kind of Dependency†, pgs. 135-165 in Louis Horowitz ed., Cuban Communism (7th ed.), Transaction Publishers (1989). Perez-Lopez, Jorge F., Cuba’s Second Economy: From Behind the Scenes to Center Stage, Transaction Publishers (1995). Theriot, Lawrence H., â€Å"Cuba Faces the Economic Realities of the 1980’s†, pgs. 257-276 in Louis Horowitz ed., Cuban Communism (7th ed.), Transaction Publishers (1989). Watson, Hilbourne A., â€Å"The Techno-Paradigm Shift, Globalization, and Western Hemisphere Integration Trends and Tendencies: Mapping Issues in the Economic and Social Evolution of the Caribbean†, pgs. 59-88 in Joseph S. Tulchin, Andres Serbin, and Rafael Hernandez eds., Cuba and the Caribbean: Regional Issues and Trends in the Post-Cold War Era, Scholarly Resources (1997).

Media regs

Though freedom of the press is protected and guaranteed by the First Amendment, there have virtually always been laws limiting and defining that freedom.   These restricts stem from English common law regarding libel and defamation and from the attempts of the United States government to keep up with ever changing modern times.The initial restrictions on the freedom of the press were only in regards to libel and defamation. These concepts, dating to before the adoption of the American Constitution, were inherited restriction of the freedom of the press. Ultimately though, in American law at least, they   come down to a singular defense. It’s not libel or defamation if it is true.Libel laws require that the victim be identified, that the thing being written damages them in the eyes of a significant minority and that the accusation not be true. Under American law, truth is the ultimate libel defense. However, the American court system has also long held that the freedom does not extend to the press the right to deliberately and with malice harm a person or group by reporting fiction.   If the issue being reported is true, then there is no libel. This differs from other countries around the world, including Australia, where libel simply involves damaging another person’s reputation and the claim can be made whether or not the facts in evidence support the accusations made.The important distinctions of American libel law in lie in identification and the concept of a significant minority.   In the part, American courts have ruled that identification does not necessarily mean by name. Identification can be implied, so that a significant number of people can figure out who the individual is that is being discussed or it can be as a member of a group. For example, even if Bob Jones is never identified by name as a member of the library board, he is a part of that group.If the press then accuses all library board members of being tax cheats, and Jo nes is not, then he has been libeled as part of an identifiable group. The other interesting caveat of the law and the administration of libel law is that the victim must only prove that their reputation was damaged within a significant minority.   This wording leaves a great deal up to the discretion of the court, both in determining what is a significant minority and when that minority might believe the things that are published about an individual. Ultimately though, all journalism students in the U.S. are taught that truth is the ultimate defense. If the issue being reported is true, there is no libel.Further restricting the freedom of the press is the concept of defamation of character.   This is the statute under which most lawsuits against tabloid magazines were brought before the more modern move to accuse them of invasion of privacy. Libel requires that a person suffer actual damage as a result of the insult to their reputation, i.e. the loss of a job, relationship or s ome tangible asset. Defamation simples requires that a person was injured by the falsehoods spoken or written about them.This was well and good until 1964 when the Supreme Court ruled that public persons, politicians and others who earn their living via being in the limelight, could only sue for defamation when they could prove actual malice. This meant that unless the public figure, say the president, for example, could prove that the news organization concocted false stories knowingly for the sole purpose of harming him, he would have no right to sue. If the story was true, then he definitely had no grounds to stand on.In 1798, the U.S. Congress further restricted the freedom of the press with the Sedition Act of 1798. The sedition act said, among other things, that any â€Å"false, scandalous or malicious writings† that bring damage to the U.S. Congress, the President, or any branch of the government were illegal (Wisconsin Journalism 2005). The laws regarding seditious li bel were used to keep the press from criticizing the government and to restrict the freedom of the press. Furthermore, the government has always seen fit to regulate â€Å"adult content† in print and has in recent years also restricted the types of advertising allowed in some form of media.However, with the advent of and expansion of radio and television, the U.S. government determined it necessary to create an entirely new arm of the government to regulate the media, the Federal Communications Commission. The FCC was begun as a means of controlling the airwaves with a lot of lofty goals in place. Allegedly, there was a concern about air space.The frequency the broadcast media was using had to be apportioned so that radio stations were not stepping on each other’s signals, preventing anyone from receiving clear reception. Furthermore, by regulating the size and power of the broadcast tower, the FCC claimed it was preventing the rcih stations from dominating the airwave s with might instead of talent or desire. The plan then, was to increase competition by making sure than everyone was on a level playing field.As time progressed, the FCC also worried about the influence that the broadcast media held and installed limitations on the number of television stations and radio stations that could be controlled by a single company or person. The idea was to again promote competition and prevent one faction from having superior control over the information accessible to the average citizen.   In further support of this, in 1949, the FCC instituted the Fairness Doctrine, a rule that said if a broadcast media gave a specific amount of time to one side of an issue, it was required to give the same amount of time to the other side.This was done theoretically to promote fair and balanced reporting of issues so that the public could make informed decision regarding political issues, rather than being completely influenced by hearing only one side of an issue. Paid advertising was exempted, except that the media had to charge the same price to whatever person wanted to buy advertising space rather than offering special deals to the side of an issue supported by the editorial staff of the station.The fairness doctrine was later withdrawn as unnecessary, but there have been some efforts recently to bring it back. Largely, these efforts come in the form of diatribes against right-wing talk radio, saying that because the talk show hows do not present fair and balanced reporting of the issues, the stations which air them should be forced to offer a show with a counter point. Opponents of this argue that free market competition has made the right-wing talk shows profitable and that commerce, not politics, has dictated the content of most broadcast stations.Because of the differing availability of broadcast television and radio, the FCC has also felt more comfortable with restricting the types of advertising that these stations may accept and wh en they may air it.   The FCC banned some alcohol commercials and all cigarette advertising from the broadcast media in an attempt to legislate a healthier country. Proponents of the restrictions say that manufacturers were unfairly using the psychological impact of broadcasting to influence people of an inappropriate age range to drink or smoke. Further restrictions have run the gamit from requiring alcohol manufacturers to encourage responsible drinking to forcing tobacco companies to rethink and redesign trademark logos.In short, the FCC has tried to regulate the broadcast media at any turn that it appears the American public is likely to accept. They have been able to do this by differentiating between the press and the mass media when it suits them. And, the FCC has tried to regulate the print media as well, from suing Hustler for its publication of pornography to creating and overseeing joint operating agreements between major metropolitan newspapers, forcing the papers, onc e owned by the same company, to maintain separate editorial boards to preserve the appearance of competition and diversity in news.The FCC has also tried to regulate even more modern media forms with attacks on the internet and attempts to regulate how Americans access the world wide web.   This over regulation has led to a backlash with many people believing that the industry needs to be de-regulated and the FCC in a precarious position. In recent years it has fined broadcast networks for the language and behavior of shock jocks, for â€Å"wardrobe malfunctions† at the Super Bowl, and for language used during prime time television.But an increasingly media savvy nation is demanding that they back off. Yes, some people were offended with the sight of Janet Jackson’s breast in a time when people believed the programming to be â€Å"family-friendly†, but at the same time, people are also calling on the offended to regulate themselves and turn off the programs th ey find offensive. Many people no longer believe in the government’s right or need to protect people. After all, what tech savvy child can’t find his way to much more gratuitous sites on the internet?The relaxing of the regulations on the broadcast media is long overdue.   The broadcast media has been ham strung for years by the overregulation by the FCC. It has suffered through undue restrictions and made to compete with cable television which did not suffer from the same sort of restrictions. They have been subjected to the whims of the FCC and have had restricted advertising revenues due to FCC regulations. The reality is that Americans are tech savvy enough now to restrict themselves. If they want to keep their families from viewing in appropriate materials, they can do so via parental controls or a v-chip.   It should not be the government’s responsibility to legislate morality.Furthermore, the regulations either need to be applied across the board or n ot at all. The FCC has not kept pace with technology in the modern era, and has thus not had Congress give it jurisdiction over newer forms of communication including cable television and satellite radio. As these things become commonplace, by regulating the broadcast media that uses the free airwaves and not the pay-for-use broadcast media,   the FCC places the free media at a distinct disadvantage and should not do so.While some restrictions on the freedom of the press, such as libel and defamation laws are appropriate, laws aimed at â€Å"protecting society† from itself, including advertising and pornography restrictions should be lifted. Once again, the government should trust the free market to decide as it did in the Imus’ case. No FCC interference was needed to get the bigoted talk show host off the air. The fair market did its job, demanding that he be removed or th station face lost revenue. That should be the way the media is regulated.WORKS CONSULTED †Å"America’s Battle over Media Ownership† The Economist, Sep. 11, 2003. , June 29, 2007.Hendrickson, Chris T and Francis Clay McMichael. â€Å"Controlling Contraditctions among Regulations†   The American Economic Review, Vo. 75, No. 4. Sep., 1985, pp. 876-877.â€Å"Media Regulation†, PBS,, June 29, 2007.

Corporate Governance in Malaysia

Corporate Governance is a concept in which it has been existence for decades; although not in the exact form that it has come to be understood today (Anandarajah, 2001). The term corporate governance was introduced in Malaysia in 1997 during the Asian Financial Crisis. It also drew the public’s attention on the weaknesses of the Malaysian corporate governance practice (Nor Azizah Zainal Abidin, 2007).Besides that, the downfall of Sime Bank, the Bumiputera Malaysian Finance (BMF) scandal, the irregularities in Renong Berhad, the Perwaja fiasco and the internal management problem faced by Malaysian Airline System (MAS) forced government to enhance corporate governance regulations (Norwani, Mohamad, & Chek, 2011).The High Level Finance Committee Report 1999 on Corporate Governance in Malaysia defined corporate governance as the â€Å"process and structure used to direct and manage the business and affairs of the company towards enhancing business prosperity and corporate account ability with the ultimate objective of realizing long term shareholder value, whilst taking into account the interest of other stakeholders. † (Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance, 2012). The code that governs the corporate governance in Malaysia is called the Malaysia Code of Corporate Governance (MCCG).This code was recently revised in March 2012 and it is known as the MCCG2012. Besides providing relevant information to investors, this code also aims to encourage transparency management of companies, to enable investors to guide the direction of the company (Nor Azizah Zainal Abidin, 2007). The MCCG 2007 was revised with the aim to enhance the directors’ duty to the companies. With the revised MCCG 2012, there are still many issues arising from corporate governance. However, to some extent there are improvements in some area of the corporate governance.The revised MCCG 2012 contained a few improvements in the recommendation. This Code now establishes clear roles an d responsibilities where ethical standard should be formalized through the code of conduct by the board to ensure its compliance. Through the company’s code of conduct, it mandates the board to formulate system of compliance and ethical standards. Besides, it also includes ensuring that the company’s strategies promote sustainability. There are many improvements made under reinforcement of independence. 3. 1 mandate boards to undertake an annual independent director assessment.For an individual to serve as an independent director, 3. 2 mandate a cumulative term to nine years. Under 3. 3, justification and shareholder’s approval is needed if the board retains as an independent director. And lastly MCCG 2012 recommends that a majority of independent directors must be in the board and the board chairman is not an independent director. These were not in the MCCG 2007. The most important improvement under the MCCG 2012 is to ensure timely and high quality disclosure. Under this the board should make certain the appropriate disclosure procedure and policies of the company.Also, for effective dissemination of information, board should encourage the company to leverage on information technology. This is to promote better use of technology. Furthermore, with the existing recommendation, MCCG 2012 also state that the board should also encourage pool voting in order for strengthening the relationship f the company and shareholder. This imposes duty to inform the shareholders of their right to demand a poll vote by the general meeting chairman. The concern here is whether the revised MCCG have enhanced the corporate governance of the companies in Malaysia.This code calls for voluntary compliance, coupled with the requirement in the listing rules of KLSE which make mandates disclosure of the extent of compliance with the best practice sets out in the Code, while allowing for some flexibility in its implementation by companies. The aim here is to provid e necessary information and encourage disclosure to investors who entrusted their funds to companies, so that they can monitor the way it is being run (Finance Committee on Corporate Governance, 1999). This Code has somehow reduced the number of financial scandal but definitely not completely clear it off.There are many scenarios that company collapsing due to financial scandal as what was initiated by the BMF (Bank Bumiputera Finance) scandal. The law governing director’s duty consist of various forms of law. These duties have been observed also contain a plurality of legal fields such as company law and employment law (Hee, 2003). Section 132(1) of the Companies Act 1965 requires a director to use reasonable diligence and to act honestly in the discharge of his duties. The duty to act in the best interest of the company as a whole also from common law covers the collective interest of both existing and prospective shareholders.It is suggested that the common law fiduciary d uty to avoid conflicts of interest should be codified to allow directors to be clear about their obligations in conflict situations. KLSE listing Requirements stipulates that public listed companies must got at least two independent directors. Individuals who are expressly excluded from being eligible to act as independent directors include major shareholders, professional advisers or relatives of an executive director or major shareholder of the listed company (Hee, 2003). This provides a better equilibrium of powers between directors and independent directors.The auditor actually provides a check on the information aspect of the governance system rather than having a direct corporate governance responsibility. As widely recognized, the duties of the audit committees have been related to internal audit financial reporting and external auditor. The importance of an audit committee in the framework of corporate accountability is where audit committees are expected to act as the guard ian of investors’ interests and corporate accountability suggested by the wide adoption of audit committee (Saidin, 2007).The main duties are to inspect and form an opinion as to whether the financial statements have been drawn up in accordance with the financial reporting standards of Malaysia and the Companies Act 1965; to obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from material misstatements; and to examine and form an opinion whether the financial statements give a true and fair view of the financial position of the Company as of the financial year end and of its financial performance and cash flows of the year end (Yycadvisors, 2012).The pertinent issue in corporate governance is due to mismanagement, director’s duty not well performed, abusing the minority projection / shareholders and not having meetings often to update what is going on. Management or board should practice the commonly accepted principles of corporate governance such as i ndependence, accountability, roles and responsibilities, integrity and ethical behavior, and transparency. A company’s board should have a number of independent directors. They should be individual with no connection with the company other than a seat in the board.Also, selected independent directors should meet the â€Å"independence† test under the regulatory rules and also to serve with independence of minds. This process of selecting independent directors is likely to maintain their independent mindedness (Rahman & Salim, 2010). To create a system that holds decision makers accountable while according proper respect to their authority over corporation is a challenging thing for corporate governance. The market, shareholder voting, and civil and criminal liability is the regular accountability mechanism.In theory, to create incentives for deterring self-dealing and other forms of misconduct and for responsible decision making these mechanisms work together. However, in reality, these contain flaws that allow individuals to occasionally exercise an irrational discretion when making decisions that will affect many others. The impact can be distressing for investors, employees, and the economy when the governance system fails (Jones, 2010). Given the control of publicly held companies, management should be accountable to its board of directors.The board, in turn, should be accountable to the shareholders and other stakeholders. The principle of accountability can be enhanced by many ways, such as enforcing rules and laws, protecting shareholders’ rights, imposing duties on officers and ensuring the scrutiny of the company’s financial statements by independent auditors (Rahman & Salim, 2010). To provide creditors, depositors and shareholders creditable assurance that they will abstain from fraud activities, financial transparency would be an important mechanism.Timely and accurate disclosure should be made regarding all materials mat ter concerning the corporation is one way to ensure excellent corporate governance. The voluntary items disclosed in the annual reports, the time of the information to be released and quantity of information influenced by the board of directors. In disclosing all the relevant information in the financial reporting, the BOD will be transparent when they are independent and examine their responsibility to be accountable to the shareholders.To ensure the quality of the financial reporting process is one of the main functions corporate governance play. Financial reporting should be prepared with integrity which relies on corporate governance. Dependency of the integrity of financial reporting is highly on the performance and conduct of individual involved. What lead the company to reporting failure is when the corporate governance fails where most of them manipulated their financial statement to meet the performance expectation.Research also has found that there is a connection between weaknesses in corporate governance with bad financial quality, fraudulent financial statement weak internal control and earnings manipulations (Norwani, Mohamad, & Chek, 2011). Problems that arise in companies in Malaysia regarding corporate governance have to do with the political interference to certain extent. State/government can be said as the â€Å"real† company controller compared to law/policy regulated under corporate governance. For example, the famous corporate governance failure in Malaysia – the scandal of Perwaja Steel Sdn.Bhd.. Perwaja, a company owned by the government in collaboration with a Japanese company, Nippon Steel Corporation that was established by HICOM Bhd. in 1982, to fulfill the government’s mission in implementing the heavy industrial policy (Nor Azizah Zainal Abidin, 2007). This can be seen as an example where the state, as a shareholder in the company, has direct interest to it. Fraud and corruption can easily happen with the exi stence of this relationship. Due to the misconduct of directorship the corporate governance of Perwaja collapsed.Perwaja faced with corruption and mismanagement in tender and contract awarding. Furthermore, doubtful trading transactions and payments were carried out to non existing companies (Netto, 2004). There are one sided contracts between Perwaja and both local and foreign companies plus with erroneous records and many of millions ringgit were unauthorized (Norwani, Mohamad, & Chek, 2011). This shows the failure of corporate governance in Perwaja Steel Sdn. Bhd.. However, with fresh funds being injected by the government today, Perwaja is still in business (Netto, 2004).In other case, like the Malaysian Airlines System Bhd. (MAS) faced with internal management problems. Tan Sri Tajuddin Ramli, the largest shareholder in MAS who held both Chief Executive Officer plus with chairman position, entered into unprofitable business activities whereby he had over expansion the flight de stination, has caused the occurrence of governance failure (Norwani, Mohamad, & Chek, 2011). The new management under Tajuddin Ramli had already cause MAS to suffered huge debts, prior to the Asian Financial Crisis.This had put MAS at risk during the crisis as all their transaction were done is UD dollars (Nor Azizah Zainal Abidin, 2007). Due to the veto power of the government in MAS’s management the decision on airlines destinations were subjected to government’s decision and approval. To comply with Malaysian foreign policy, MAS had to oblige and extend its services, where at that time, not popular destinations or less concentrated areas were decided by the government. This decision contributed lower return to MAS.From this point of view, we can see that the government/political involvement in business have a huge influence in the management of the company. Besides another reason of governance failure of MAS was due to increased in capital expenditure caused by many orders on planes from 1998 to 2001. It was simply a mismatch between earnings and expenditure in the financial reporting, whereby earnings were is ringgit while the latter was in US dollar. MAS ended up paying a higher cost than what was originally ordered for. MAS was then repurchased for more than double of the market price.The question here was before the government’s buyback, why an audit was not conducted which would have a very important bearing on the proper price of the government buyout. An international case study example would be the Satyam Linggam scandal, the biggest corporate scam in India has come to the most respected businessman. Satyam founder resigned as its chairman after admitting to cooking up the account book. The CEO was responsible for the board accounting improprieties that reported a large amount of cash holding that does not exist and overstating the company’s profit and revenue.With a successful effort on the part of investor’s in o rder to prevent an effort by the minority shareholding promoters to use the firm’s cash reserves to buy two companies owned by them, the scandal all came to know. Consequently, this failed the attempt of expansion on Satyam’s part, which in turn led to a collapse in company’s stock prices, followed by a shocking confession from Raju. History has played a part in the development of corporate governance in India. The first code for corporate governance was published in 1988, but by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) entitled desirable Corporate Governance.Unlike codes in some other countries, the CII code did not make statements of principle but addressed specific business issues in India. The code called for â€Å"professionally competent, independent non-executive directors† to make up the board. None should hold more than ten listed company. The code also called for audit committees. A year later 1999 a government committee released India’ s National Code on Corporate Governance (Ticker, 2009). Reflecting international standards, the code had the approval by the SEBI and incorporated into stock exchange rules.The government issued guidelines on corporate governance in central public sector enterprises in 2007, covering the composition of the boards, audit committees, accounting standards and risk management (Ticker, 2009). However, corruption remains entrenched in India, not at least in the government administration. The Ministry of Company Affairs and the Securities and Exchange Board need more competent staff experience in corporate governance matters. But rapid economic growth and potential in India suggest that the next few years will see significant changes in both attitude and practice (Ticker, 2009).The failure in corporate governance forced rules and regulations to be enacted (Norwani, Mohamad, & Chek, 2011). Recent corporate scandals and the near-collapse of the global ? nancial system all demonstrate the imp ortance of maintaining an effective corporate governance regime (Jones, 2010). With the revised MCCG 2012, duties of all the board of directors are clearly stated, and this will serve as guidance and should improve the corporate governance of the company.